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Comprehensive strategy for ministries with Native Americans
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- Recommendation approval
with amendment
- Background Statement
- Theological Statement: Identity
as Peoples in Relationship with the Creator
- Summary of Historic Relationship between Presbyterian
Church and Native American Peoples
- Findings of Task Force: What We Heard and Saw
Challenges and Strategies for Native American Ministry
in the Next Century
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General Assembly Action (2000)
(Evangelism & Church Development, Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.)
212th General Assembly - 2000) SA 22.229-22.235
The Assembly Committee on Evangelism and Church Development
recommends that the 212th General Assembly (2000) approve the
following recommendations:
I. Comprehensive Strategy
for Ministries with Native Americans
That the recommendation be approved with amendment:
1. Commend the "Comprehensive Strategy for Ministries with
Native Americans" report to entire church and direct the
Office of General Assembly to print and distribute the document
electronically when possible to churches that have electronic
addresses and mail the report when needed.
2. Call upon the whole church to work together to form new patterns
of connection between Presbyterian churches and middle governing
bodies, and Native American churches and ministry projects, with
the additional focus on urban and off-reservation Native American
populations.
3. "Instruct the General Assembly to make available adequate
funding for implementation of the "Comprehensive Strategy
for Ministry with Native Americans," including but not
limited to the following: (a) extend support for developing
congregations beyond the traditional model of five years;
(b) develop and produce a recommended outline and overview
for commissioned lay pastor training, to be used in preparation
for ministry with Native American communities and commend
these materials to presbyteries; (c) increase recruitment
of and maintain adequate funding for Native American Scholarship
Aid for seminary students; (d) assist in the development of
opportunities for volunteer service in Native American communities;
(e) conduct an inventory of Native American church properties;
(f) provide funding to implement the strategies recommended
for youth and young adult ministries (in Item D.5 of the rationale,
p. 25). That the 212th General Assembly (2000) refer 22.232
to the Special Task Force on Native American Ministries for
further discussion and the development of specific, measurable
recommendations to the 214th General Assembly (2002) and that
this be funded from the National Ministries Division. That
the Office of the General Assembly/Research Services be instructed
to develop a comprehensive statistical report on Native American
Presbyterians by the time of the 214th General Assembly (2002).
4. Commend the Vision Quest Endowment Fund for Native American
Ministries to the whole church, including Extra Commitment Opportunities.
(NOTE: This is an endowment set up by the Native American Consulting
Committee. Extra Commitment Opportunities generally through
Native American Congregational Enhancement, synods or presbyteries).
5. Commend the middle governing bodies and churches, which have
acknowledged the church's participation in policies and practices
that have hurt Native American peoples and threatened their existence
as sovereign peoples and taken steps toward reconciliation, as
well as encourage the whole church to do the same.
6. Dismiss the Special Task Force on Native American Ministries
with thanks and appreciation. That the recommendation be referred
to the General Assembly Council, the Special Task Force on Native
American Ministries, for further discussion and the development
of specific, measurable recommendations to the 214th General
Assembly (2002) and that this be funded from the National Ministries
Division. That the paper entitled "Mission and Ministry
with Native American Peoples: A Historical Survey of the Last
Three Centuries,"
prepared by the General Assembly Task Force on Native American
Ministries, be included in the minutes of the general Assembly.
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II. Background
Statement
The Special General Assembly Native American
Task Force (hereinafter "Task Force") was appointed in
response to Overture 95-34 submitted by Grand Canyon Presbytery.
Overture 95-34 directed the Task Force to "study and review
mission and ministries with Native American tribes and peoples and
to develop a comprehensive strategy for ministries with Native Americans
and to report no later than the 212th General Assembly (2000) its
findings and recommendations as a comprehensive strategy for Native
Americans for the next century."(Minutes, 1995, Part I, pp.99,
682).
The Task Force membership represented a wide spectrum of Native
American Ministry in the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) [PC(USA)]:
clergy, Native and non-Native, Native American lay persons, middle
governing staff and PC(USA) educational institution faculty and
the current Moderator of the Native American Consulting Committee
(NACC). The Task Force included the following persons:
June L. Lorenzo, Moderator, Falls Church, VA
Lou Deer, Vice-Moderator, Seminole, OK
Rev. David Dobler, Anchorage, AK
Rev. Henry E. Fawcett, Dubuque, IA
Rev. Kenneth Lehman, Naperville, IL
Elona Street-Stewart, St. Paul, MN
Rev. Mary Ann Warden, Barrow, AK
Marilyn Yazzie, Holbrook, AZ
The Late Rev. James Spaulding, Iowa City, IA
Randel Bohanon, NACC Moderator, Smithville, OK
Mary McQuillen, Former NACC Moderator, Port Townsend, WA
Sallie Cuaresma, Former NACC Moderator, Los Angeles, CA
Also named to the Task Force was the Rev. Buddy Monahan (Los Angeles,
CA) who served one year, but subsequently resigned.
At its first meeting in January 1996, the Task Force set forth a
work plan that would focus on meeting with and listening to as many
Native American congregations as possible in the first two to three
years, and then compiling the information in the third year. A questionnaire
form was mailed to every Native American congregation with a letter
encouraging their participation in the process. The dreams and concerns
of Native American Presbyterians were heard in individual church
visits, at church wide gatherings and special events. Information
gathering continued into the fourth year. An annual report was issued
each year to update Native American Presbyterians. Due to the comprehensive
historical research needed, as well as the need to compile large
amounts of data on Native American ministries, the Task Force retained
the services of a historical consultant and a contemporary issues
consultant. Finally, in October 1999, the preliminary recommendations
and strategies were presented at the NACC Eight Synod Consultation
in Rapid City, South Dakota. This consultation was convened to facilitate
an issues and strategy discussion between Native American churches
and middle governing body staff.
The church wide Policy Statement for Native American Ministry, adopted
by the 207th General Assembly in 1979, is the current PC(USA) mandate
for Native American Ministries. Thus, the Task Force understood
its goal to be that of developing strategies to support and supplement
this policy.
This report contains a brief history of the Presbyterian Church's
historic relationship with Native American peoples, including more
recent organizational changes in the Presbyterian Church; the resultant
impact on Native American ministries, as reported in the Findings
of the Task Force; and Strategies and Challenges to address issues
and concerns identified. |
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III. Theological
statement: Identity as people in relationship with the creator
A comprehensive strategy for ministry with
Native Americans in the PC(USA) must be developed in the light
of a clear appreciation for who Native peoples are and how the
church has related to them theologically and historically. The
Native American peoples are the indigenous peoples of the land
now known as the Americas. They are an ancient people who have
lived and evolved in these lands over many centuries. Through
the examination of their beliefs and stories, they know that they
have always been an integral part of this part of the world; they
did not come from anywhere else. Much of what is known about Native
peoples has come from distorted views presented by a history tempered
with blind assumption, and reflective of social bias, with reinforcement
provided by romantic novels, New-Age thinking and portrayals by
modern media. From coast to coast and desert to woodland, the
Native peoples perceive themselves to be an integral part of the
Creation. Native languages speak of the Creation in family terms
such as "Mother Earth," "Grandmother,"
"the Grandfathers," the Moon and the Winds. These perceptions
are not easily crushed or diminished. Even to this day, when Native
peoples are divided between Christian and traditional beliefs,
they are still able to remember a sense of oneness through common
feelings about the Creation. Even before the arrival of Europeans,
their spiritual expressions varied from environment to environment,
but they maintained a commonality because of a shared understanding
about the nature of relationship to the Creation.1
With the introduction of Christianity, many Native peoples achieved
an understanding of the teachings of Jesus Christ and were impressed
by their similarity to many Native teachings about how a full
life could be achieved. Many Native people accepted this message
without giving up their understanding of their place in the Universe,
as taught in traditional instruction. What has caused severe problems
in our communities and nations are the contradictions introduced
by Western Civilization, a professed belief in Christian teachings
and yet actions that violated those beliefs. It is unfortunate
and important to note that the conversion of Native peoples was
to change a lifestyle, rather than provide affirmation for who
they were as peoples and an invitation to share the spiritual
gifts they possessed.
As we in the year 2000 look honestly at the more painful parts
of the church's history with Native peoples, we have to ask honestly
how a theology could be so twisted as to justify assuming that
Native people were "less than", assuming the role of
civilizer and participation in cultural genocide. Is that kind
of theology still functioning in the church of 2000 in more subtle
ways? "These
questions are only the surface of deeper concerns. Racism and its
concomitant systemic evils point to a sickness of the entire theological
enterprise of the church and not just to its 'missionary parts."2 We
know from a historical perspective that the Presbyterian Church
(U.S.A.) has a rich history of ministry with Native Americans.
While that ministry has at times caused harm, many Native people
speak of the significant contributions the church has made. Over
the years there has been a decline in the influence, strength
and effectiveness of the Presbyterian Church's ministry with Native
Americans. Part of this can be attributed to a history of paternalism
that has belittled and thwarted the initiative of Native people,
a people who are proud of their culture and traditions. Thus,
there is a need for renewed hope, new vision, new vitality and
new direction based both on a mutual acknowledgment of past errors,
reconciliation and a common claim of hope for the future.
Self determination is fundamental to the hopes and aspirations
of Native Americans. This concept must be affirmed by the larger
church if it is to forge a mutually beneficial partnership with
Native American communities. Partnership is essential if we are
the meet the critical need for leadership and ministry for all
age groups. There are growing populations of Native people on
and off reservations. We have done far too little in urban areas
where opportunities for new ministries are challenging and growing.
In facing the challenges of the new century, we must be drawn
together by the power of the Holy Spirit, reconciled by the love
of Jesus Christ and energized by a mutual commitment to an inclusive
ministry. |
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IV. Summary of
historic relationship between the Presbyterian Church and Native American
peoples
As the Task Force surveyed the historic
relationship between the Presbyterian Church and Native American
peoples, at least three major themes emerged. First, the Presbyterian
Church was active both in the formation and implementation of
government policies affecting Native American peoples for the
first 200 years of this relationship. Because major Indian policy
in the United States has focused on the land rights of Native
peoples, it follows that the story of Presbyterian work among
Native Americans is one largely linked to the heart of Native
America — its land. Second, it is difficult to distill peculiarly
Presbyterian work in these issues as much of the work among Native
peoples was done in cooperation (and sometimes in competition)
with other denominations. Third, it is only within the last 30
years of this 250 plus year relationship that the Presbyterian
Church, as an institution, has extended to Native peoples the
full decision-making and financial responsibility for the business
of Presbyterian churches in their communities.3
At the time the first presbytery was established at Philadelphia
in 1706, it is believed there were 37 Indian Protestant pastors
in Eastern America. They had received training to interpret and
translate in their ministry. John Eliot, whose first American
Bible had been translated into the Algonquin language in 1661,
organized communities of Christian Indians into "Praying
Towns"
near Natick, Massachusetts for the purpose of creating a buttress
against bad settlers or "pagan" influences. However,
Indians were later killed, dispersed or interned and the towns
were broken up by 1676. By 1730, a Society in Scotland for Propagating
Christian Knowledge, which included Presbyterians and Calvinist
Congregationalists, supported missionaries in America, some of
whom worked with the Indians. Azariah Horton, a Presbyterian,
organized the first Indian Presbyterian Church in 1741 among
the Shinnecock Indians. In 1750, Moor's Indian Charity School
in Connecticut moved to New Hampshire when Presbyterian ministers
of Scotland offered financial assistance; it later became Dartmouth
College. The Suffolk Presbytery ordained Samson Occum, a Mohican.
He was the first Indian to be ordained as a Presbyterian Minister.
The evangelization of Indians was assigned to foreign missions
in the Presbyterian Church by the early 1800's, under the rationale
that they should be treated the same as non-English speaking people
in other countries. The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign
Missions (hereinafter "American Board") was established
in 1810 and the United Foreign Missionary Society (Presbyterian,
Reformed, and Associate Reformed) was organized in 1816. The two
merged in 1826. The denominations each created their mission boards
. In the Presbyterian Church, Indian missions were transferred to
Home Mission in 1883 (Minutes, UPCUSA, 1883, p.105.) Upon the transfer,
the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions provided a report which
reviewed its history of work in "Indian missions:
"They were established in view of the spiritual state of the
Indians. Their condition as lost sinners, and their need of Christ
as their Savior, led our churches to seek their salvation. It was
soon perceived that as a heathen people, and as speaking languages
of their own, the same kind of missionary efforts were required
for them as for the people of Africa and China. Their case was
subjective rather than geographical in its leading features ... Evangelistic
work for the heathen was assigned to the Board of Foreign Missions
without reference to the particular region where they lived ...
These efforts took the form of preaching, teaching in schools, training
native missionary laborers, translating portions of the scriptures,
etc., very much as if they lived in Syria or Persia. The missionaries
were appointed to work for life, if Providence should permit and
a work exclusively for the Indians. They were not placed under the
care of superintendent s ... Under this general line of proceeding
for fifty years, such men as Dr's. Kingsbury, Byington, Williamson,
Wright, Spalding and others,... have been honored by the churches
as missionaries to the Indians, equally with their brethren in other
foreign fields. .... Many hundred of the Indians were brought to
their Savior by His grace, lived exemplary Christian lives, and
triumphed at death in the hope of the Gospel. A number have been
ordained as ministers of the Gospel and others are in training
for the ministry. Education and the ways of Christian life have
been adopted in several tribes. As to temporal matters, the civilization
of the Seneca's, Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Omaha's, Dakotas,
Nez
Perces and others must be ascribed largely to these missions — indeed,
for more to them than to all other agencies combined."
Report of Presbyterian Board of Foreign Mission in 1882 (Minutes,
UPCUSA, 1882, Part I, p.765.)
At that time, the Presbyterians had mission work among the Seneca,
Lake Superior, Chippewa, Dakota, Omaha, Winnebago, Iowa, Sac, Creek,
Seminole, Choctaw, Nez Perces, Ottawa, Otoe, Spokane and Fox. Throughout
the nineteenth century the geographic expansion of Presbyterian
mission work among Native Americans often foreshadowed the movement
of Euro-Americans to Native Americans lands. From the removal of
the Cherokees and Choctaws from the Southeast to Indian Territory
(Oklahoma), to the Sioux Nations after the Treaty of Ft. Laramie,
early Presbyterian mission, often in concert with other denominations,
was in the midst of political and military battles for expansion
westward.
Work among the Cherokees began in 1803 when Gideon Blackburn, a
Presbyterian, was assigned by the Presbyterian General Assembly
to serve as a missionary among the Cherokees. Cyrus Kingsbury,
another missionary who followed in 1810, persuaded President Madison
to consider appropriating funds designated for the "civilization"
of Indian people. In 1819 Congress created a Civilization Fund,
providing an annual appropriation $10,000 to "moralize"
Indians through the establishment of schools. The minutes of the
General Assembly contained an endorsement of "the gospelizing
of the Indians on the frontiers of our country, connected with a
plan for their civilization ..."(Minutes, UPCUSA, 1920, Part
I, p. 309) The American Board was one of the largest beneficiaries.
By 1829, it had twenty-one schools among the Five Civilized Tribes,
compared with seven for all other denominations combined. Their
school at Brainerd in southeastern Tennessee, founded in 1817, was
the most flourishing of the Indian schools. They taught skills in
black smithing and agriculture, with the goal of educating Indian
students away from their culture.
The government wanted to "civilize" and the Church wanted
to "Christianize" the Indians. In 1820 the Dwight Mission
School was founded in Indian Territory (Oklahoma) for the Choctaw
people. In the 1830's Presbyterians were involved on both sides
of the removal of the Cherokees, Choctaws and other southeastern
tribes to Indian Territory (Oklahoma). Despite a series of Supreme
Court victories upholding the rights of the Cherokees, by 1835,
President Andrew Jackson, a Presbyterian, proposed removal of
the Cherokee to Indian Territory in his annual message to Congress.
The Presbyterian missionary Worcester, whose refusal to comply
with a Georgia statute requiring all non-Indians to obtain a
state license, led to a Supreme Court case establishing a major
doctrine of Indian sovereignty. Jeremiah Evarts, a Presbyterian
and Secretary of the American Board was an ardent spokesperson
against removal. He published a series of articles presenting
legal and moral arguments against removal. Despite the American
Board's support of the Indian position, the Cherokees and the
other four Civilized Tribes (Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek and Seminole)
were forced to move to Indian Territory over the "Trail
of Tears" in 1836.
Elsewhere in the west, news of four Nez Perce men who traveled
to St. Louis in 1831 in search of the "White Man's Book of
Heaven"
was taken as a call for missionaries to go to the Northwest. The
American Board sent missionaries to Oregon, Washington and Idaho.
In 1835 Marcus and Narcissa Whitman went to the Oregon Territory.
Henry and Eliza Spalding went to Nez Perce Country. Whitman was
among the strongest supporters of adding the Oregon territory
to the United States, in opposition to the British. The first
Nez Perce churches, Kamiah and Spaulding, were established in
1871.
By 1845, Manifest Destiny, a credo that (white) Americans were
destined by divine providence, to expand their national dominion
by whatever means necessary, had materialized in the race to populate
the western frontier. In 1849, with the East nearly free of Indian
nations, the Bureau of Indian Affairs was transferred from the
War Department to the Department of the Interior. This move eventually
provided the backdrop for numerous political appointments of Indian
Service agents in the west. After numerous allegations of fraud
and corruption, President Grant in 1869 inaugurated his "peace policy,"
designed to promote peaceful relations with Indian tribes. One aspect
of this policy was a new system of assigning field personnel. Missionary
boards of the various denominations agreed to provide agents and
other personnel to supervise the Indian reservations. The Board
of Indian Commissioners, created by Congress in 1869 as part of
the peace policy, served as liaison between the government and the
churches. In order to promote cooperation, the Board held a meeting
each January to provide a forum to discuss Indian affairs. The Board
invited the secretaries of the mission boards, as well as the Commissioner
of Indian Affairs and other government officials to report on their
work. Missionaries were appointed as field agents until the 1880's.
Thus it was often the case that Indian missionaries were nominated
by their denominations, then appointed as Indian Agents to tribes.
Protestant missionary work in the Great Plains among the Dakotas
began around 1831. The American Board opened the Dakota mission
through the efforts of the Rev. Thomas S. Williamson in 1834 near
Lac Qui Parle, Minnesota. He and the Rev. Stephen Riggs developed
materials written both in Dakota and English. However, the rise
in conversions did not grow in large numbers until after missionaries
began visiting and acting as advocates on behalf of Sioux men imprisoned
after an 1862 Sioux uprising in Dakota territory. Congress had
created the Dakota Territory which encompassed much of present
day South Dakota, North Dakota, Montana and Wyoming by treaty
in 1861.
Among the ministers/advocates were the Revs. Williamson and Riggs,
Bishop Whipple and Father Ravioux. Dakota Presbytery, first organized
as an Indian and White Presbytery in 1844, is the only continuing
Native American Presbytery in the PC(USA) with churches in Montana,
Minnesota and North and South Dakota. The Rev. John Renville, the
first Dakota minister was ordained in 1865.
In the twenty or so years following the Civil War, the resistance
of the Indians to the invasion of their homelands by miners and
settlers as well as the wanton destruction of the buffalo, led
to wars that dominated discussion of Indian policy. In the 1870's
and 1880's a system of mission schools supported in part by government
funds emerged. In 1875, the General Assembly passed a resolution
to "Christianize and civilize the Indians." (Minutes,
UPCUSA, 1875, Part I, p. 541.) Presbyterians and other denominations
supplied the buildings and teachers, and the government paid
an annual amount to each school for each child enrolled.
By 1878 the government began to sponsor its own boarding schools
with the intent of assimilating Native people. General Pratt,
who founded Carlisle Indian Training and Industrial School in
Pennsylvania, used the motto "kill the Indian, save the man." Indian
students first enrolled at Hampton Institute for blacks in Virginia
in 1878.
In the Southwest, Presbyterian mission began largely after the
Civil War. Charles H. Cook, a government school teacher among the
Pima's, was persuaded to become a Presbyterian minister and officially
began Presbyterian work in 1878. He started churches among the
Maricopa and Yavapai as well. The Presbyterians also began work
among the Tohono O'odham (Papago). In northern Arizona, the Presbyterians
established a school and church at Ganado Mission (1901) among
the Navajo. Later, missions were established throughout the Navajo
reservation, at Tuba City, Kayenta, Chinle, Indian Wells, Leupp
and Fort Defiance. In present day New Mexico, the Rev. John Menaul
began work as a government school teacher at Laguna Pueblo in 1875;
the Laguna Presbyterian Church was founded in 1897. In southwestern
Colorado, ministry was established among the Ute near Towaoc. Churches
were also established among the Paiute in the Eastern Sierras of
California (Valley Presbyterian in Bishop), and in northern California
among the Hupa at Hoopa.
Alaska missionary work among Native Alaskans began through the
efforts of Sheldon Jackson, who had started his ministry among
Native Americans at Spencer Academy in Oklahoma and later established
churches in the Midwest and Southwest. He recruited Amanda McFarland
to serve in Alaska; she founded a girls school at Wrangell in 1877.
Jackson became General Agent for Education in Alaska while simultaneously
serving as Superintendent of Presbyterian Missions. He founded
the Sitka Training School (now Sheldon Jackson College) which served
southeast Native villages where churches were located, including
Kake, Hoonah, Angoon, St. Petersburg, Sitka, Wrangell, Ketchikan,
Hydaburg, Klukwan, Craig, Klawock and Metlakatla. Jackson traveled
to Barrow in 1890, but the Utkeagvik Church was not established
until 1897. Native churches established in southeast Alaska served
the Tlingit, Haida and Tsimshian peoples. Other Presbyterian churches
were established throughout Northern Alaska, among the Inuit and
Yupik peoples, into the early 1900's.
Education was one tool by which the Protestant reform movement
exerted major influence on federal Indian policy in the last two
decades of the nineteenth century. Three groups, beginning in 1883,
met annually at a resort hotel near Lake Mohonk in New York to
discuss Indian reform, to hear speakers on relevant issues and
to formulate resolutions which they later used to influence public
opinion and to lobby Congress and government officials: the Women's
National Indian Association, the Indian Rights Association and
the official Board of Indian Commissioners. Represented were at
least eight Protestant denominations, including Presbyterians
and Catholics in the later years. More than a fourth of the members
were ministers, their wives and representatives of religious groups;
many others were prominent lay leaders in their churches.
All this occurred in the midst of a larger evangelical movement
in the country. While the motivations of the "Friends of the
Indian" were benevolent, their solutions contained a basic
and dangerous threat to the existence of Native peoples. In the
words of a historian of federal Indian policy:
The distinguishing mark of American evangelism was its insistence
on individual salvation; the conversion and reformation of individuals
would, evangelists believed, correct the evils of society. The
Indian reformers eventually realized the fundamental conflict between
this principle and the communal life and customs of the Indians.
Their solution was to ignore the wishes of the Indians, and insist
on their individualization and acculturation freed from bondage
to the tribe. 'The Indian as a savage member of a tribal organization
cannot survive, ought not to survive, the aggressions of civilization,'
the Indian Rights Association declared...in 1884, 'but his individual
redemption from heathenism and ignorance, his transformation from
the condition of a savage nomad to that of an industrious American
citizen, is abundantly possible.4
In 1887 President Grover Cleveland was a commissioner to the General
Assembly. Denominational missionaries met with him and requested
his support for federal policy that would prohibit Indians from
speaking their languages, practicing their ceremonies, dances,
culture and arts and crafts, all as part of an effort at further
assimilation. In response, such a policy was implemented in boarding
schools. A key component of the effort to individualize Native
peoples was the movement to break up tribal ownership of the land.
Under the terms of treaties and agreements signed with the government
in the 1800's, reservations were owned collectively. The Lake
Mohonk Christian reformers, led by Senator Henry Dawes, saw the
reservation system as racial segregation that only reduced Indians
to poverty. Believing the answer was to dissolve the reservations
and distribute the land to individual Indians, they supported
enactment of the Dawes Act of 1887. Their rationale was that if
Indians were each given a plot of land, they would develop the
pride of ownership and thereby become further civilized. They
would leave their nomadic ways, settle down and become "responsible
citizens." Private ownership would
also make Indians safe from encroachment by homesteaders and miners
who continuously tried to move in on Indian lands. Under this
act, also known as the Allotment Act, each Indian was to be given
an allotment of land. Any unused or unclaimed land reverted to
the federal government and was almost immediately thereafter
sold to settlers. When Congress passed the Act in 1887, there
were 138 million acres of Indian lands in the United States; by
1934, when Congress ended the allotment system with passage of
the Indian Reorganization Act, that number had plummeted to 48
million acres.
Protestant influence in federal Indian policy experienced a major
decline in the first two decades of the next century, for reasons
not entirely clear. R.C. Beaver, a noted church historian, once
said that Indian mission concerns began to wane after the last
of the Indian wars in 1890. By 1900 the government no longer funded
mission schools. Leupp, the Indian Commissioner appointed in 1904,
would favor day schools. Albert Smiley, founder of the Lake Mohonk
conferences, died in 1912, and the last such conference took place
in 1916.
By 1928, Lewis Merriam completed a study of Indian Affairs which
documented the failure of federal Indian policy during the allotment
period, and provided impetus for a sweeping change in federal policy.
The Indian Reorganization Act, passed in 1934, ended the practice
of allotment, thereby offering protection for the land base of
tribes and permitted tribes to set up legal structures designed
to aid in self-government. Many Indian tribes adopted a constitutional
form of government. John Collier, the new Indian Commissioner,
followed recommendations of the Merriam study and supported the
return of Indian culture and heritage, much to the chagrin of various
church denominations. They feared a return to traditional ways,
thus subverting their assimilation ethic. The social science approach
adopted by Commissioner John Collier was clearly at odds with the
Christian motivation behind the Christian reformers of the late
19th century.
Contemporary History
Since the end of the Second World War, Presbyterian General Assemblies
have consistently taken positions supportive of Native American
land rights and other issues affecting Native peoples. Before the
1983 reunification, both assemblies (PCUS and UPCUSA) had supported
the concepts of tribal sovereignty and self-determination, as well
as the freedom for Native Americans to practice their own religions.
In 1953, Congress adopted "termination" legislation during
the Eisenhower (a Presbyterian) administration. Its express aim
was to "make the Indians within the territorial limits of the
United States subject to the same laws and entitled to the same
privileges and responsibilities as are applicable to other citizens
of the United States, [and] to end their status as wards of the
United States." H. Con. Res. 108, 83rd Cong., 67 Stat. B132
(1953). While the intention of some members of Congress was benevolent,
the results were devastating for thirteen tribes whose relationship
with the federal government was terminated; they were subjected
to state laws, and their lands were converted into private ownership
and in most instances sold. This federal policy threatened all tribes.
The United Presbyterian Church issued a general policy statement
in 1954 against forced termination of tribes (Minutes, 1954, Part
I, p. 193). At the same time, the Bureau of Indian Affairs offered
grants to Indians who would leave the reservation to seek work in
metropolitan centers as a response to extremely high unemployment
on reservations. While some succeeded, large numbers of Indians
ended up unemployed and disillusioned in urban areas such as Los
Angeles, Chicago, Dallas and San Francisco. By the late 1960's termination
and related assimilation ideas were largely regarded as failures.
Termination was finally discouraged during the administration of
President Kennedy.
The termination/assimilation policy was simulated in the United
Presbyterian Church (UPC) in a structural change that began in
the late 1950's and was fully realized in the early 1970's. Under
a restructure, the administration of Native American churches
was moved from the umbrella of the Board of National Missions
to approximately 16 presbyteries in seven synods. This move emanated
from a philosophy that mission must be done at the lowest level
of the Church. Thus, approximately 100 Native American churches
which had theretofore dealt with the Board of National Missions
office were assigned to new, often uncertain, relationships with
presbyteries with whom they had few if any prior dealings.
Beginning in 1964, the United Presbyterian Church led in the Indian
Goals Study which included eleven denominations with historic Native
American work. The study, conducted from 1964 to 1967 by the National
Council of Churches, was the first in which Native American voices
were included in an evaluation of Indian mission. The eleven denominations
adopted Goals supporting the concept of self determination by Indian
people, in tribal government and Church administration. Each denomination
was challenged to establish a national Indian Board and employ Indian
executives. Prior to the 1983 reunion the majority of Native American
churches were in the "northern" church and Native Americans
had made significant inroads in their quest for Native American
staff at the national offices in New York. In 1970 the United Presbyterian
Church employed an Indian executive, Joe Watson, in its national
office. However, the need for Indian staff in national and governing
bodies remained a need.
The creation of a national Native American Consulting Committee
(NACC) began in 1969 when the General Assembly provided $100,000
in seed money to be used for projects on Indian reservations.
An ad hoc committee was created to review proposals submitted
for use of the funds; however, the need for a permanent consultative
body soon became apparent. On the eve of the 1972 Church restructure,
the committee developed a position paper entitled, "We May
Be Brothers After All," which contained a comprehensive
historical, theological and programmatic statement. General
Assembly endorsement of this report in 1972 also called for
continuation of a consulting committee with the more inclusive
term "Native American" to include Eskimo and Aleut
work.
NACC was given final approval in 1977, with authority to evaluate
and recommend programs seeking national funding, as well as provide
counsel to General Assembly agencies and synods. In 1976, the UPCUSA
adopted its first major policy statement on Indian rights. However,
there was no committee parallel to NACC in the PCUS. (Minutes, PCUS,
1976, pp. 208-209) By 1982, a member of a Native American church
from the PCUS sat on NACC.
In 1979, the General Assembly adopted the church wide Policy Statement
on Native American Ministry. The 1983 Reunion resulted in a total
of 109 congregations in PC(USA). Under the Articles of Agreement,
the church wide Policy continues as the mandate for PC(USA) policy
on Native American ministry. |
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V. Findings of task force: What we heard and saw
At present there are 109 Native American congregations
and one Urban Ministry Project in the PC(USA). Although there
is great diversity in language, culture, geography and history,
there are striking commonalities among Native American churches
in the PC(USA). These churches are located across the country,
from Shinnecock Church on Long Island, New York, to Neah Bay,
Washington, and from Livingston, Texas to Point Barrow, Alaska.
Most of these churches were established prior to 1900; thus most
Native American Presbyterians are fourth and fifth generation
Presbyterians in communities with long historic ties to the Presbyterian
Church. With the exception of Utkeagvik Church (Barrow, Alaska),
most Native American congregations are small with memberships
of less than 100 and in many cases less than 50. The great majority
of Native American churches do not have full time clergy.
Most PC(USA) Native American churches are located
on reservations and trust lands. Of the ten reservations which
accounted for over half of all Native Americans living on reservations
and trust lands in the 1990 census, Presbyterian churches are
located on or near at least six of them: Navajo (AZ, NM, UT);
Pine Ridge (SD); Gila River (AZ); Papago(now Tohono O'odham)
(AZ); Rosebud (SD); Hopi (AZ) and Blackfeet (MT).
According to the 1990 census, at least 39 percent
of the national Native American population is under the age of
18. At least 65 percent of the national Native population lives
in major urban areas such as Los Angeles, Tulsa, Phoenix, Albuquerque,
Denver, Dallas, Chicago, Washington, D.C. and New York. The 2000
Census may reveal variations in these figures, but the basic trends
will likely remain the same into the next century.
Significant findings on Native American ministry
were published in the 1978 report "We May Be Brothers After
All," which is included in the Appendix to this Report.
Thus, in studying and reviewing the history of Native American
ministry, the Task Force attempted to build upon this work and
listened to congregations in an attempt to understand what substantive
changes had occurred in the last two decades and what issues remain
as concerns. The following findings are summarized in five categories
identified as areas in particular need of attention.
A. Development and Education for Congregational
Leadership
Most Native American congregations are in a maintenance mode,
rather than a strategizing mode. Interviews revealed that the
administrative move of Native American churches from the Board
of National Missions to presbyteries in the 1960's occurred without
strategic transitioning of the churches toward more self-support.
After 200 or so years of total support of Native American missions,
this shift was viewed by many Native American communities as breaking
a promise to "always provide a church to the community."
Although churches are now at various levels of financial independence,
only three churches reported to be near a state of self-sufficiency.
The Task Force documented a great need for
leadership and leadership development in most Native American
churches. In many cases the session members were not familiar
with the Book of Order and Presbyterian polity. There is low
participation in synod and presbytery activities and events.
The Task Force also documented low interaction between middle
governing body staff and Native American churches. Moreover,
Native American staff have served primarily in only two synods
(Southwest and Lakes and Prairies) and two presbyteries (Grand
Canyon and Dakota — a Native American non-geographic presbytery).
Very few congregations reported ongoing and
consistent Christian education classes. While they believe it
is very important, they often have no trained leadership and few
resources. Related to this is a frustration over a lack of Christian
education materials sensitive and relevant to their church size,
language and culture. Ministry to youth and children is constantly
cited as a great need, as it is integral to strengthening the
family unit.
B. Preparation for Ministry and Church Vocations
There is a clear crisis in availability of Native American clergy.
Whereas in the 1940's at least half of the 110 Native churches
were served by Native American clergy, in 1995 there were only
17 installed clergy and 11 in 1999. As a result, lay clergy are
heavily relied upon in churches throughout the country. A significant
number of churches stated that they cannot afford a full time
pastor and if they can, they cannot afford to pay pension and
benefits. Prior to the 1950's, most Native American pastors were
appointed to the field under the Board of National Missions. When
the shift was made from the Board to middle governing bodies,
Native American churches were expected to initiate the process
of calling and replacing pastors, without adequate preparation
and training. In the three decades following this shift, the majority
of Native American churches were unable to maintain full time
ministers. One major consequence has been a decline in membership
and leadership in Native American churches.
Native American ministry, by and large, is
one of isolation. Geographic distances make it difficult for
even commissioned lay pastors to participate in lay training
courses. Many churches are physically isolated and others may
be culturally isolating to non-Native clergy unprepared to live
in a Native cultural or multi-cultural setting. Many churches
reported frustration with a high turnover of clergy and a lack
of understanding of their culture. Often this is due to little
or no orientation for clergy, including Native American clergy
from other tribes. Native American ministry is also full time
ministry to a community regardless of church location and membership.
Still, current Native American ministers faithfully struggle
to meet the leadership needs of Native American communities
by serving multiple churches. In some cases ministers serve
five, six and 13 even parishes!
Significant efforts to prepare and train Native
American clergy and lay leaders were made in the 1970's and
1980's. Cook Christian Training School introduced Theological
Education by Extension as a method by which the reformation
theme "Priesthood
of All Believers" could be implemented in training laity
for ministry. The Native American Theological Association (NATA),
whose membership included seven seminaries from five denominations
(Presbyterians, United Church, Methodist, Baptist and Lutheran),
assisted 21 Native American students graduate from seminary
from 1975 to 1985. With the support of the Fifty Million Fund,
the Native American Theological Educational Consortium (NATEC)
was able to train 810 laity and 11 clergy while it participated
with NATA in developing theological studies. NATEC included
Cook School, Huron College (later University of Ozarks) and
Dubuque Theological Seminary. Dubuque Theological Seminary established
in 1974 a Native American Program that is designed to prepare
both Native Americans and non-Native Americans to serve Native
congregations. However, the results of these measures languished
without congregations being prepared to fully support clergy
or lay pastors.
At present, eleven Native Americans are enrolled
in seminaries, the highest number in the last twelve years.
Native clergy and seminarians have expressed concern over the
fact that seminaries generally do not offer courses designed
to prepare candidates for racial ethnic ministry and much less
for Native American ministry. Courses currently offered in several
seminaries often perpetuate racial stereotypes of Native Americans
as well as a "pan Indian" approach to study of Native
American religions. Unfortunately, a present lack of information
in PC(USA) Research Services on Native American churches, (financial
resources, operation cost, number of members) makes it difficult
to determine the full cost of ministry in Native American churches.
Very few Native American churches participate in statistical
reporting and thus little or no data base exists. Current survey
tools simply do not work; thus there is a need to find a more
effective methodology for accessing data on the cost of ministry.
C. Native American Church Growth
Native American churches have historically emerged
from four models: (a) missionary: established preaching points;
(b) mission stations (e.g. the cannery at Yakutat, Alaska); (c)
ministry based on a probe of whether ministry was needed (e.g.
Native American Ministry Project in greater Los Angeles); and
(d) family or clan chapels. At least three of these models may
no longer be viable options for Native American church growth.
There is a need to affirm and acknowledge a style of worship
and evangelism among Native people that often forms the basis
for church growth. The annual "camp meeting" or "retreat"
is a revitalizing force in the Native American community. The
Church has defined evangelism as ministry to individuals. But
the Indian evangelistic ministry is living out the Good News,
and reinforcing the Good News, within the context of the community.
It is a community-based expression of being together in the
good news, with the emphasis on the gathering. Renewal, redemption,
reconciliation and salvation are directed toward the entire
body that comes together, not just on those who are bold enough
to step out from the body. The gathering is periodic, but scheduled,
and it rises to a significant position on the annual calendar.
It is a time that emphasizes stories of all sorts. Some are
told in the preaching. All are told in an intergenerational
and interpersonal manner. This Bible study is full of one's
relatives, who discovered that when they were weak in the faith,
they could gain strength by praying and singing and worshiping
in a reunion of believers.
In 1989 the Native American Ministry Project
was established in the Los Angeles metropolitan area after a comprehensive
survey and study. This ministry project is the only urban Native
American non-parish ministry project in the PC(USA). Four churches
in the greater Los Angeles metropolitan area host the twice-monthly
worship services. The Project spans the area of three presbyteries
and is ecumenically supported in membership. A full time minister
responds not only to spiritual needs of Native families, but also
social needs and justice issues.
A similar project was started in the San Francisco
Bay Area in the 1980's, but remains in name only without necessary
financial support. This project still has potential and can
be revitalized. The potential for urban and off-reservation
ministry with Native Americans will require much more study
than the Task Force was able to complete. Given the fact that
the majority of Native Americans are located in urban and off-reservation
areas, a separate study focusing on urban Indian ministry is
needed. In the course of conversation with the Native American
Ministry Project in Los Angeles, as well as other Native American
Presbyterians in urban areas, the Task Force heard some common
themes. First, in urban areas, Native people tend to be less
concerned with denominationalism than with community among other
Native people. In other words, community with other Native people
is more important than necessarily being with other Native American
Presbyterians. Thus, future urban and off-reservation ministry
projects will likely have to be flexible, creative and respectful
of Native community; this may mean crossing presbytery and synod
lines, as well as being ecumenical. Several other reformed denominations
have successfully established urban ministry projects in cities
such as Minneapolis, MN and Charlottesville, NC. Ministries can
be designed to meet the need of Native Americans in urban areas.
These ministries must emerge from a careful analysis of needs
in urban communities.
Another important theme in Native American church
growth is the upkeep of facilities and church buildings, which
necessarily includes accurate and reliable records on buildings
and property. The Task Force found that documentation of ownership
of church property on or near reservations is inconsistent or
not available. Limited resources and staff have not periodically
updated property information. Past attempts to develop regional
listings were frustrated by the fact that the PC(USA) lacks church wide
information. Much of Native American church property is located
on trust or restricted lands, thus tribal governments may have
more updated records on these properties. In many instances, families
or tribes gave property to the church with the agreement that
the property would return to the family or tribe if or when it
ceased to be used as a church.
An inventory would help to create a central
data base where records can be assessed for property management,
resource development, insurance policies and historical preservation.
D. Need for New Patterns Of Connection
The visits and conversations with many Native
American congregations taught the Task Force that the historic
relationship between the Presbyterian Church and the federal
government, in development and implementation of Indian policy,
has left a legacy that Presbyterian Church as one who made a "treaty"
promise to provide ministry in Native American communities and
has not fulfilled that promise. Thus, many of the elder members
of Native American congregations speak in terms of a Presbyterian
promise, likened to a treaty, to always provide ministry in
that community.
Part of this legacy is remnants of paternalism
in the types of connections PC(USA) entities have with Native
American congregations. By far, most of the relationships with
Native American churches are not true partnerships, but paternalistic
relationships in which another church or church entity only does
things for the Native church on its own terms. The Task Force
observed that, where there have been multiple or repeated instances
of mission activity such as vacation Bible school or making repairs
to churches, they have not achieved long term self-sufficiency.
The Native American Consulting Committee (NACC)
is an important organizational connection between Native American
ministry and the PC(USA). The church wide Policy Statement for
Native American Ministry clearly designates NACC as the consultative
body on matters of national Native American ministry policy. However,
since the 1983 reunion and subsequent reorganization, the Presbyterian
Church's recognition and observance of the church wide Policy Statement
has decreased significantly.
E. Native American Youth and Young Adults
Geography and travel costs are the largest barriers
to Native American youth and young adult participation in church wide
events. Often, local churches do not have sufficient resources
to support youth and young adult programs. The greatest and most
effective participation has been at events planned and subsidized
at the national level. For example, since the resurgence of the
American Indian Youth Conference in 1994, attendance has increased
tenfold. A large percentage of a Birthday Offering grant from
Presbyterian Women in 1992 was directed to Native American Youth
programs. The recent formation of a Native American Young Adult
organization grew out of these forms of supports.
Young adults, often young parents, have different
life circumstances and therefore differing needs which often go
unrecognized. At a Native American Young Adult Consultation held
in May 1998, many young adults discussed honestly their reasons
for disenchantment with the Church, as well as a strong desire
to be fully involved in the life of the church. They continue
to ask for assistance with programs and worship that recognize
their needs and life issues.
Native youth and young adults often face contradictions between
"traditional" Native American values and Christian
theologies that are not affirming of their identity as Native
Americans. While many see few conflicts and continue to explore
who they are in their own spiritual journey, ministers and other
members of the congregation often force them to make choices
between participating in Native traditional events or ceremonies
and attending church. Many have left the church because they
were criticized for expressing interest in traditional teachings
and practices. Strong self identity as Native American and self
esteem are critical issues in a population that has a high rate
of suicide attempts and completion. The Native American community
experiences a suicide rate seven times the national average
for other populations.
Many youth expressed frustration with old models
of leadership in Native American congregations. The words of one
captures the sentiment of many Native American youth interviewed:
"The young are not trusted enough with the 'sacred' things
of the church; and because they are not given the opportunity
to experience and make mistakes, in the process of developing
their leadership skills, we don't have the presence of young people
in the churches." Statements like this present a challenge
to Native American congregations to invite youth and young adults
to take more leadership in the church. They also attest to the
need for ministries that meet the needs of youth and young adults.
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Challenges
and strategies for Native American ministry in the next century
As part of its work, the Task Force also began discussions with
Native American churches and middle governing body staff about
strategies for addressing the concerns, as well as ways of affirming
present efforts to revitalize ministry. Below, the Task Force
has identified some strategies for addressing the issues raised.
Because we are a connectional church, it is important that all
levels of the church be participants: Native American congregations,
Middle governing body staff and national staff. It is our hope
that these challenges and strategies will serve as an impetus
for more creativity in revitalizing Native American ministry.
Where provisions of the church wide policy are applicable, they
are identified below in the narrative.
A. Development and Education for Congregational Leadership
In the area of stewardship, Native American
churches are challenged to provide larger percentages of pastors'
salaries, program, budget and mission giving, in partnership
with the larger church. The church wide Policy on Lay leadership
provides that the PC(USA) "through its presbyteries will
provide resources to train elders and other lay leaders for
witness and service in both church and community." Thus,
presbyteries are encouraged to be deliberate in including Native
American congregations in opportunities to develop leadership,
and to be intentional in developing strategies for the mission
of Native American churches, as provided in the Book of Order.
The church, at all levels, is encouraged to take into consideration
the long patterns of paternalism that will take time to dismantle.
Thus, plans to work toward self-supporting Native American Churches
must include longer terms of support other than traditional
methods to provide church growth.
B. Preparation for Ministry and Church Vocations
All Native American Presbyterians are challenged
to make a concerted effort to identify, recruit and encourage
gifted candidates to be called to church vocations. In cases
where cultural and language differences exist, Presbyteries
are encouraged to provide an advisor to guide and assist Native
American candidates through the ordination process, as it fulfills
the duties of the presbytery in G 0306.2.
The General Assembly Council, in consultation
with NACC, is encouraged to produce and publish a series of resources
addressing the various areas of instruction required for commissioned
lay pastors. The writing should not assume any prior theological
training and should be written at an eighth grade reading level.
Seminaries are challenged to offer study options
that prepare ministry candidates to be culturally competent in
their ministry, including anti-racism training, values in a multi-cultural
community and equal employment practices.
The PC(USA) is encouraged to establish and fund a scholarship
program for seminary students that provide a significant portion
of the costs of seminary training that would be forgivable if
the student accepted a call to a Native American congregation.
The General Assembly is encouraged to commission
a study, in consultation with the Board of Pensions and National
Ministries Division that examines issues related to Native American
Pastors' salaries.
C. New Patterns of Connection
The church wide policy on Mutuality in Mission
provides that the PC(USA) will "through its agencies make
it possible for Native Americans to participate and contribute
fully in the total life of the church in order that the whole
church may be enriched and benefit from partnership and involvement
in the larger body of Christ." The PC(USA) "will develop
ways to include Native Americans in its decision-making process,
especially in those areas that affect the lives and destinies
of Native Americans." The policy on National Agency, Council
and Committee Relationships provides for "advice and consultation
with Native Americans through appropriate channels on all matters
pertaining to Native American ministry." (Minutes, UPCUSA,
1979, Part I, pp. 401- 404.)
Synods, presbyteries and individual churches
are encouraged to develop, partnership-based relationships with
Native American congregations and new church developments, with
attention to approval of work within the bounds of a presbytery
and informing presbyteries if aid-receiving churches receive
funds from outside of a presbytery.
The Church is encouraged to emphasize and promote ecumenical
and inter-faith endeavors among Native American congregations,
particularly on reservations and in urban areas where denominational
differences impede Christian witness. There is a need for a
Volunteer Service Program, potentially in partnership with
the Volunteer in Mission Office, which would recruit Native
Americans for mission service with Native American communities
on and off reservations. Presbyteries and synods are encouraged
to be in correspondence with tribal governments in Native American
communities regarding matters such as management of property
and resources.
Native American Presbyterians must be deliberate
and intentional in applying for national committees and board
positions.
D. Native American Church Growth
The church wide Policy on Mutuality in Mission provides that the
PC(USA) "will seek to understand Native American culture
and respect the philosophy, values and heritage of Native Americans
in order that Presbyterians may learn from Native American lifestyles
and benefit from fellowship with the" (Minutes, UPCUSA, 1979,
Part I, pp. 401- 404). An essential aspect of this policy must
be the recognition of the importance of community for Native Americans.
This community-centered identity, for many Native people, is the
core of existence and the source of healing and nurture. Thus,
the Task Force sets forth the following strategies for Native
American Church Growth.
A truly mutual relationship between the church
and Native American communities requires that the church recognize
and honor the styles of worship that are common to Native Americans
which, can and do, bring healing, renewal and reconciliation with
God and each other. This aspect of Native community must be taken
into consideration when designing ministry with Native Americans.
The Church Growth Strategy Team is urged to incorporate these
considerations as it seeks to plan for overall Church Growth.
Presbyteries in each major metropolitan area
with a substantial Native American population are challenged
to explore the potential for ministry with urban and off-reservation
Native American communities. In support of the church wide Policy
on Facilities, Buildings and Land, the Office of Property Management
is encouraged to consult with appropriate Native American churches,
consulting bodies and presbyteries to complete its planned inventory
of Native American church property by 2002. Information on property
should include documentation on title, possession and restrictions
on use or possession of the property, assessment of value, land
survey of sites and boundaries, cemetery indexing, construction
and maintenance status and financing history.
E. Youth and Young Adults
Native American congregations are challenged
to honor youth and young adult voices in decision making and
programs of the Church. The PC(USA) is urged to support Native
American youth and young adults ministries, in developing programs
which teach PC(USA) structure, theology and polity through conferences
and other events. This would include financial support and leadership
development.
Recognition by the PC(USA) of the value of Native
American languages and symbolism in worship, and Native American
viewpoints in educational materials is also critical to developing
an inclusive ministry for Native Americans; it would also benefit
the entire church.
Governing bodies are urged to be deliberate
in working with Native American congregations to develop sexual
misconduct prevention policies and educational programs designed
to prevent or reduce high risk situations involving young people.
F. Vision Quest Fund
The Task Force encourages individuals
and churches to contribute to the "Vision Quest" endowment
fund designed by Native Americans as a way to provide long term
support for the development of Native American ministry in the
PC(USA).
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Bibliography
1. American Indian Consulting Panel, United
Presbyterian Church in the USA, We May
Be Brothers After All, May, 1972
2. Native American Consulting Committee, United Presbyterian Church
in the USA,
From Policy to Action: A Report of the Denver Consultation About
Implementing the
General Assembly Native American Policy Statement, March, 1980.
3. Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), Native American Ministry church wide
Policy Statement,
1979. (Minutes 191st Assembly)
4. Paisano, Edna L. U.S. Census Bureau, The Official Statistics,
internet publication:
http://www.census.gov/populationwww/pop-profile/amerind.html,
The American Indian,
Eskimo, and Aleut Population.
5. Special Task Force on Native American Ministries, Review of
the Native American Historical Journey and its Affects. January,
2000
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